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Depression is a mental health disorder marked by persistent low mood and loss of interest in daily activities. It affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. As of 2020, around 280 million people worldwide—about 3.5% of the global population—live with depression. Key Features Core Symptoms: Ongoing sadness or low mood. Loss of pleasure or interest in activities once enjoyed. Impact: Depression influences thoughts, emotions, and daily functioning. It can affect relationships, work, and overall well-being. Not Just Mood Swings: Depression is different from temporary feelings of sadness or stress. It lasts longer and interferes with normal life.

Alcoholic hepatitis—increasingly called alcohol-associated hepatitis—is a serious liver condition caused by drinking alcohol. It involves inflammation and damage to liver cells, which can lead to liver failure and death if alcohol use continues. What is alcohol-associated hepatitis? Alcohol-associated hepatitis occurs when long-term heavy drinking or binge drinking causes toxic injury and inflammation in the liver. It is part of alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD), a spectrum that ranges from fatty liver to fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver failure. Not everyone who drinks heavily develops liver disease, but the risk is significant. Studies show that up to one-third of people with alcohol use disorder develop alcohol-related liver disease. Stopping alcohol completely is the single most important treatment step. Symptoms Symptoms range from mild to life-threatening. Common symptoms Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice) Loss of appetite Nausea and vomiting Fatigue and weakness Low-grade fever Pain or tenderness in the upper right abdomen Advanced symptoms Fluid buildup in the abdomen (ascites) Confusion or behavior changes (hepatic encephalopathy) Bleeding from enlarged veins in the esophagus or stomach (varices) Kidney failure Liver failure Malnutrition is common because alcohol replaces food calories and interferes with nutrient absorption. Causes When the liver breaks down alcohol, it produces toxic by-products that: Damage liver cells Trigger inflammation Weaken the gut barrier, allowing bacterial toxins to reach the liver Over time, fat accumulation, inflammation, and cell death lead to fibrosis and eventually cirrhosis. Fibrosis may improve with abstinence, but cirrhosis is usually permanent. In people with both metabolic dysfunction (such as obesity or diabetes) and alcohol use, the condition may be called Metabolic dysfunction and alcohol-associated liver disease (MetALD). Risk factors Amount and duration of alcohol use Women: 3–4 drinks/day for 6 months or more Men: 4–5 drinks/day for 6 months or more Female sex Overweight or obesity Genetic factors Black or Hispanic ethnicity Binge drinking Acetaminophen (paracetamol) use with alcohol Prior bariatric surgery (faster alcohol absorption) Other liver diseases (e.g., hepatitis C) Poor nutrition When to see a doctor Seek medical care immediately if you: Have symptoms of alcoholic hepatitis Notice jaundice Have trouble controlling alcohol use Want help stopping drinking Alcohol-associated hepatitis is not contagious, unlike viral hepatitis. Early diagnosis and complete alcohol abstinence can be life-saving and may allow partial liver recovery.

What Is a Carotid Artery Aneurysm? A carotid artery aneurysm is an abnormal bulge or ballooning in one of the carotid arteries. These arteries are major blood vessels that supply blood to the brain, head, face, and neck. You have two common carotid arteries, one on each side of your neck. As each artery travels upward, it divides into: The internal carotid artery, which supplies blood to the brain The external carotid artery, which supplies blood to the face and neck Carotid artery aneurysms can develop in any of these arteries, but they most commonly occur in the internal carotid artery. An aneurysm forms when a section of the artery wall becomes weak. As blood pressure pushes against this weakened area, the vessel wall bulges outward and becomes thinner, increasing the risk of rupture. The larger the aneurysm grows, the more dangerous it can be—similar to an overinflated balloon. How Serious Is a Carotid Artery Aneurysm? Carotid artery aneurysms affect blood vessels that supply the brain, so complications can be serious: Blood clots may form inside the aneurysm and travel to the brain, causing: Transient ischemic attack (TIA) (“mini-stroke”) Ischemic stroke Large aneurysms may rupture, leading to: Hemorrhagic stroke Life-threatening bleeding Some aneurysms remain small and stable for years, while others grow quickly and require treatment. True vs. False (Pseudoaneurysm) Carotid Artery Aneurysms True Carotid Artery Aneurysm Involves all three layers of the artery wall (intima, media, adventitia) Most commonly caused by atherosclerosis The artery wall bulges outward uniformly False Carotid Artery Aneurysm (Pseudoaneurysm) Involves only one or two layers of the artery wall Appears as a sac attached by a narrow “neck” Often caused by: Trauma Infection Complications from medical procedures Both types can lead to serious complications and may require treatment. Who Is Affected? Most commonly affects adults in their 50s or 60s Can affect adults of any age Rare in children Very rare overall: fewer than 1 in 100 aneurysms involve the carotid arteries Symptoms of a Carotid Artery Aneurysm Stroke or TIA Symptoms (Most Common) TIAs and strokes are medical emergencies. Call emergency services immediately if any of the following occur: Vision loss or difficulty seeing Difficulty walking or loss of balance Dizziness or coordination problems Numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg (especially one side) Sudden, severe headache Slurred or confused speech Difficulty understanding others Symptoms From Local Pressure If the aneurysm presses on nearby nerves or veins, symptoms may include: Headache Hoarseness Neck pain Facial swelling A pulsating lump in the neck Difficulty swallowing Vision problems Contact your healthcare provider if you experience any of these symptoms. Causes of Carotid Artery Aneurysms Possible causes include: Atherosclerosis (most common) Weakening of artery walls due to: Connective tissue disorders Fibromuscular dysplasia Medical procedure complications (e.g., carotid surgery, radiation therapy) Traumatic injuries (e.g., blunt trauma, gunshot wounds) Risk Factors Factors that increase risk include: Family history of aneurysms High blood pressure (hypertension) Smoking or tobacco use Diagnosis Carotid artery aneurysms are diagnosed through: Physical Exam Listening for abnormal blood flow sounds (carotid bruit) Medical & Family History Identifies inherited risks and underlying conditions Imaging Tests Ultrasound CT scan Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) Additional tests may include: Brain imaging to assess blood flow Genetic testing Screening of the aorta or other arteries Some aneurysms are found incidentally during imaging for other reasons. Treatment Options Treatment depends on aneurysm size, growth rate, location, and symptoms. Surveillance (Watchful Waiting) Regular imaging every 6–12 months Suitable for small, symptom-free aneurysms Blood pressure and cholesterol medications may be prescribed Open Surgery Removal of the diseased artery segment Blood flow restored using a bypass graft Graft may be synthetic or taken from another blood vessel Endovascular Stent Grafting Minimally invasive A stent graft is placed inside the artery through a catheter Creates a new pathway for blood flow Suitable for select aneurysms based on size and location Outlook and Prognosis Outcomes vary: Some aneurysms remain stable for years Others grow and require intervention Surgical and endovascular treatments are effective but carry risks Your healthcare provider will guide you based on your individual condition. Prevention and Risk Reduction You can lower your risk by: Quitting smoking Eating a heart-healthy diet Exercising regularly Limiting alcohol intake Managing blood pressure and cholesterol Taking medications as prescribed Attending regular medical checkups Living With a Carotid Artery Aneurysm Follow your provider’s lifestyle recommendations Ask about activity restrictions Attend all follow-up appointments Report new or worsening symptoms promptly Questions to Ask Your Doctor Where is my aneurysm located? How large is it? Do I need treatment now or later? What are my treatment options? What are the risks and benefits? Are there activity restrictions? How often will I need imaging or follow-ups?