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Closure of patent foramen ovale

Medulloblastoma (muh-DUL-oh-blas-TOE-muh) is a malignant (cancerous) brain tumor that begins in the cerebellum, the lower back part of the brain responsible for balance, coordination and movement. Medulloblastoma starts as a fast-growing mass of abnormal cells. These cells can spread within the brain and spinal cord through the fluid that surrounds them, called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Unlike many other cancers, medulloblastoma rarely spreads outside the brain and spinal cord. Although medulloblastoma can occur at any age, it is most common in young children. It is rare overall, but it is the most common malignant brain tumor in children. The risk is higher in families with certain inherited cancer-predisposition syndromes, such as Gorlin syndrome or Turcot syndrome. Symptoms Symptoms usually develop as the tumor grows or increases pressure inside the brain. Common signs and symptoms include: Headaches, often worse in the morning Nausea and vomiting Dizziness Double vision Poor coordination or clumsiness Unsteady walking Tiredness or weakness When to see a doctor Make an appointment with a healthcare professional if you or your child has symptoms that are persistent, worsening, or concerning. Causes The exact cause of medulloblastoma is not fully understood. Medulloblastoma develops when brain cells acquire changes in their DNA. DNA contains instructions that control how cells grow, divide and die. In healthy cells, these processes are tightly regulated. In cancer cells, DNA changes cause the cells to multiply rapidly and avoid normal cell death. As these abnormal cells accumulate, they form a tumor that can press on nearby brain structures, invade healthy tissue, and spread through the cerebrospinal fluid to other parts of the brain and spinal cord. Risk Factors Factors that may increase the risk of medulloblastoma include: Young age – most cases occur in children Inherited genetic syndromes that increase cancer risk, including: Fanconi anemia Gorlin syndrome Li-Fraumeni syndrome Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome Turcot syndrome Key Points to Know Medulloblastoma is aggressive but highly treatable, especially when diagnosed early Treatment often involves a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy Outcomes have improved significantly due to advances in pediatric neuro-oncology Early diagnosis, specialized care and long-term follow-up are essential for the best possible outcomes.

What Is Carotid Artery Stenosis? Carotid artery stenosis, also called carotid artery disease, is a condition in which the carotid arteries become narrowed. These arteries run along both sides of the neck and are responsible for supplying oxygen-rich blood to the brain. The narrowing occurs due to the buildup of plaque, a mixture of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substances found in the blood. Over time, plaque accumulation restricts blood flow to the brain. Carotid artery stenosis is a serious condition because: Severely reduced blood flow can deprive the brain of oxygen A piece of plaque can break off and travel to the brain Blood clots may form and block brain arteries All of these situations can result in a stroke, which can cause permanent disability or death. What Are the Symptoms of Carotid Artery Stenosis? Most people with carotid artery stenosis do not experience symptoms until the artery becomes severely narrowed. In many cases, the first sign of carotid artery stenosis is a stroke or a transient ischemic attack (TIA), often referred to as a “mini-stroke.” A TIA produces stroke-like symptoms, but they: Last only a few minutes Usually resolve within an hour Serve as a serious warning sign of a future stroke Symptoms of Stroke or TIA Seek emergency medical attention immediately if any of the following occur: Sudden numbness or weakness on one side of the face or body Difficulty speaking or slurred speech Dizziness, loss of balance, or trouble walking Sudden vision loss or blurred vision in one or both eyes Severe headache with no known cause What Causes Carotid Artery Stenosis? The primary cause of carotid artery stenosis is atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a gradual process in which plaque builds up along the inner walls of the arteries, causing them to: Narrow Harden Lose flexibility As the carotid arteries narrow, less blood reaches the brain. In some cases, plaque can rupture, allowing fragments to travel through the bloodstream and block smaller arteries in the brain, triggering a stroke. Risk Factors for Carotid Artery Stenosis Several factors increase the likelihood of developing carotid artery stenosis: High blood pressure (hypertension) – weakens artery walls Smoking – damages artery lining and raises blood pressure Sedentary lifestyle – increases risk of obesity, diabetes and hypertension High cholesterol levels – promotes plaque formation Diabetes – impairs fat metabolism and accelerates atherosclerosis Obesity – increases risk of cardiovascular disease Advancing age – arteries naturally lose elasticity over time Family history – higher risk if close relatives have atherosclerosis or heart disease Complications and Related Conditions If left untreated, carotid artery stenosis can lead to: Ischemic stroke due to blocked blood flow Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) Permanent neurological damage Disability Death Stroke is the most serious complication and may result from: Reduced blood flow Plaque rupture Formation of blood clots How Can Carotid Artery Stenosis Be Prevented? Prevention focuses on managing modifiable risk factors through lifestyle and medical interventions: Quit smoking and avoid tobacco products Exercise regularly Maintain a healthy weight Follow a heart-healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains Limit salt, saturated fats and processed foods Control blood pressure, cholesterol and blood sugar levels Take prescribed medications as directed Attend regular medical check-ups